The Transformation of English Literature from Puritan Austerity to Restoration Hedonism(1620–1700)
This blog is written as part of an academic task given by Dr. D. P. Barad in our English literature course. The purpose is to explore how historical, political, and religious contexts influence the themes, styles, and genres of literature.
Introduction
English literature in the seventeenth century reflects one of the most dramatic cultural transformations in its history. Within the span of eighty years, England moved from the moral austerity and spiritual fervour of the Puritan Age to the worldly wit and sophistication of the Restoration Age. This transformation was not accidental; it was shaped by powerful political upheavals, intense religious conflicts, and significant changes in public taste. Literature, serving both as a mirror of society and a force that shaped it, responded vividly to these shifts in mood and ideology. The Puritan Age, marked by stern moral discipline and guided by the belief that art should glorify God, produced works of deep seriousness and lasting spiritual power. The Restoration Age, beginning with the return of the monarchy in 1660, marked a cultural reaction against such austerity, embracing theatrical revival, satire, and the pleasures of courtly life. Examining these two periods side by side reveals more than a simple change in literary style; it uncovers the profound relationship between the written word and the historical spirit of its age.
Brief Overview of Both Periods
The Puritan Age in English literature refers roughly to the period from 1620 to 1660, when English political and religious life was deeply shaped by the Puritan movement. The Puritans, originally a faction within the Church of England, sought to reform it according to their strict interpretation of the Bible. Their influence grew steadily, culminating in their dominance during the English Civil War and the brief Commonwealth period under Oliver Cromwell. Politically this was an age of turbulence. Parliament and the monarchy were locked in a struggle that eventually led, to the execution of King Charles I in 1649. The theatres were closed by Puritan decree in 1642, as stage plays were viewed as morally corrupting and frivolous. This suppression of public entertainment meant that literature became heavily concentrated on religious and moral themes, with poetry and prose often serving as instruments for spiritual instruction rather than secular amusement. Writers like John Milton and John Bunyan became central voices, producing works that combined artistry with a deep moral purpose.
In literary terms, the Puritan Age is sometimes also called the Age of Milton, because Milton’s genius towered over his contemporaries. His Paradise Lost (though published in 1667, after the Restoration) was conceived during this Puritan spirit, a grand epic aimed at “justifying the ways of God to men.” Alongside Milton’s elevated verse, there was a rich output of religious lyric poetry by writers like George Herbert and Henry Vaughan, who infused their work with meditations on divine love and the soul’s journey. The prose of the period was similarly serious in tone, often theological or political in nature, as seen in Milton’s pamphlets and Bunyan’s allegorical masterpiece The Pilgrim’s Progress. While the Puritan regime limited certain forms of artistic expression, it produced a body of literature of remarkable moral earnestness and intellectual depth, reflecting an age where spiritual concerns outweighed worldly pleasures.
The Restoration Age began in 1660 with the return of King Charles II from exile, marking the re-establishment of the monarchy after eleven years of Puritan rule. This political event was not just a change in leadership, it was a cultural turning point that transformed the tone and content of English literature. The reopening of theatres was one of the new king’s first acts, symbolizing the rebirth of artistic freedom and social gaiety. Court life became a centre of cultural influence, encouraging wit, sophistication, and an embrace of worldly pleasures. The Restoration court, inspired by the French culture Charles had experienced during exile, introduced a taste for elegance, conversation, and satirical observation. Literature turned away from the intense moral focus of the Puritans toward themes of social manners, political intrigue, and human folly. Writers now found royal patronage, and audiences welcomed the revival of drama, especially comedy, which had been suppressed for nearly two decades.
This age is also called the Age of Dryden, for John Dryden dominated its literary scene much as Milton had in the earlier period. Dryden excelled in heroic drama, political satire, and critical prose, becoming the first official Poet Laureate of England in 1668. The Restoration stage produced comedies of manners by playwrights like William Wycherley and William Congreve, which sparkled with clever dialogue and often satirized the hypocrisies of fashionable society. Poetry, too, reflected a new taste for clarity, balance, and classical form, as seen in Dryden’s verse and translations. The literature of the Restoration, while sometimes accused of immorality by its critics, mirrored the spirit of a nation weary of war and religious strife, eager instead for pleasure, wit, and artistic sophistication. In the contrast between these two periods, the Puritan devotion to moral truth and the Restoration delight in worldly elegance, we see one of the most striking shifts in the entire history of English literature.
Political and Religious Climate of the Puritan Age (1620–1660)
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| { England under the Puritan Commonwealth — where politics wore the armour of faith, and religion shaped the destiny of the nation (1620–1660) } |
1. Political Background
The Puritan Age unfolded during one of the most turbulent chapters in English history. At its heart lay a struggle for power between the monarchy, which claimed the divine right to rule, and Parliament, where Puritan influence steadily increased. King James I’s reign had already sown seeds of tension through his firm belief in absolute monarchy, but it was under his son, Charles I, that these tensions erupted into open conflict. Charles’s attempts to govern without Parliament from 1629 to 1640 and his imposition of unpopular taxes deepened national resentment. His marriage to the Catholic Henrietta Maria of France further alienated the Protestant majority, particularly the Puritans, who feared a return to Catholic practices. By the early 1640s, England was divided into Royalists, who supported the king, and Parliamentarians, many of whom were Puritans seeking not only political reform but also a religious reformation. This division culminated in the English Civil War (1642–1651), a conflict that ended with the defeat of the Royalists, the trial and execution of Charles I in 1649, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell.
2. Religious Atmosphere
Religion was the central force shaping both public policy and private life during the Puritan Age. The Puritans, inspired by Calvinist theology, sought to purify the Church of England from what they saw as lingering Catholic influences. They valued simplicity in worship, moral discipline, and a life guided entirely by the authority of Scripture. The Church was not merely a place of worship but the moral compass of society, and religious conformity was expected. The Puritans opposed elaborate rituals, ornate church decorations, and the theatre, which they considered morally corrupt. The closure of all theatres in 1642 was not merely a political act but a moral decision rooted in their vision of a godly commonwealth. Under Cromwell’s rule, Sundays were strictly observed, public behavior was monitored, and works of art were judged by their ability to serve a moral purpose. This religious atmosphere profoundly influenced literature, making it a medium for moral instruction, spiritual reflection, and the defense of religious ideals.
3. Literary Climate
The literary output of the Puritan Age was deeply intertwined with the era’s political and religious upheavals. With the stage silenced and secular entertainments discouraged, writers turned to poetry, sermons, theological treatises, and political pamphlets as the main vehicles for expression. Literature became a tool for persuasion, moral education, and religious devotion. Authors often wrote with a sense of duty, believing that their work should uplift the reader’s soul and align with divine truth. Even in works of great artistic merit, there was an underlying seriousness of purpose. The audience for literature was now more engaged with moral and theological debates than with tales of courtly romance or pastoral escapism. This seriousness did not stifle creativity; rather, it channeled it into new forms. The epic poem, the religious lyric, and the allegory became dominant genres, often infused with biblical allusions and spiritual allegories.
4. Genres and Trends
Two of the most important genres of the period were religious poetry and prose allegory. Religious poetry, exemplified by the works of John Milton, George Herbert, and Henry Vaughan, combined lyrical beauty with devotional intensity. Milton’s Paradise Lost, though published after the Restoration, was conceived in the intellectual and spiritual environment of the Puritan Age. Its central aim, to “justify the ways of God to men,” reflects the theological seriousness of the period. George Herbert’s The Temple (1633) presented a collection of poems structured like a spiritual journey, rich in metaphor and biblical resonance. In prose, allegory became a powerful tool for moral and spiritual instruction. John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, written during his imprisonment for unlicensed preaching, portrayed the Christian life as a journey from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City, blending vivid storytelling with deep theological meaning. Political pamphlets, another significant form, were used to debate governance, church authority, and individual rights, with Milton’s Areopagitica (1644) standing out as a passionate defense of the freedom of the press.
5. Key Figures
The Puritan Age is often called the Age of Milton because John Milton’s influence was unparalleled. His work bridged poetry, politics, and theology, making him both a literary artist and a public intellectual. Alongside him stood George Herbert, whose gentle devotional verse offered a more intimate spiritual vision, and Henry Vaughan, whose mystical poetry reflected the Puritan emphasis on the eternal over the temporal. In prose, John Bunyan’s imaginative power and theological depth made his allegories enduring classics. These writers, though differing in style, shared a common purpose: to use literature as a means of moral edification and religious truth.
Political and Religious Climate of the Restoration Age (1660–1700)
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| England in the Restoration Age (1660–1700) — the return of King Charles II marked a vibrant revival of monarchy, art, and theatre after years of Puritan rule |
1. Political Background
The Restoration Age began in 1660 with the return of Charles II to the throne after eleven years of republican rule under Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Commonwealth. The restoration of the monarchy was not merely a political event but a cultural turning point. Many in England, weary of Puritan austerity and political instability, welcomed the return of royal authority, pageantry, and the freedoms that had been suppressed. Charles II, having spent years in exile in France, brought with him a taste for Continental elegance, refinement, and the theatre, which strongly influenced English society. His court became a centre of wit, fashion, and pleasure, setting the tone for the age. Politically, the period was marked by a shift toward constitutional monarchy, with Parliament gaining increasing influence over national affairs. Events such as the Great Plague of London (1665), the Great Fire of London (1666), and the Anglo-Dutch Wars tested the resilience of the restored monarchy. Toward the end of the century, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 peacefully deposed James II in favor of William III and Mary II, securing Protestant succession and further limiting royal power, thus laying the groundwork for the modern parliamentary system.
2. Religious Atmosphere
The Restoration Age brought a significant shift in religious life compared to the Puritan period. The Church of England was re-established as the official state church, and the Act of Uniformity (1662) required all clergy to conform to Anglican practices. This act led to the ejection of over two thousand Puritan ministers, who became known as Nonconformists or Dissenters. Although religious tolerance was not fully realized, there was a gradual loosening of the strict moral codes that had governed under Puritan rule. The theatre reopened in 1660, and forms of entertainment once banned were revived. Yet, religious conflict did not vanish entirely. Catholicism remained a point of tension, especially during the reign of James II, whose open Catholic faith fueled fears of a return to Catholic dominance. Literature of the time often reflected this religious climate, with some works defending Anglican orthodoxy while others, especially in private diaries and personal writings, showing a more individual and secular outlook on life.
3. Literary Climate
The Restoration marked a decisive break from the moral gravity of the Puritan Age. The reopening of theatres and the revival of public entertainment unleashed a wave of creativity, wit, and satire. Literature reflected the sophistication and worldliness of court life, as well as the growing importance of urban society. The period saw the rise of Restoration comedy, known for its sparkling dialogue, sexual frankness, and satirical treatment of manners. Writers also began experimenting with more realistic prose fiction, journalism, and literary criticism. Poetry shifted toward clarity, balance, and restraint, inspired by classical models. The influence of French neoclassicism, brought back by Charles II and his court, emphasized order, decorum, and adherence to formal rules in literary composition. Unlike the Puritan Age, where literature often aimed to save souls, the Restoration embraced the idea of literature as a refined art for social enjoyment, intellectual engagement, and sharp commentary on human follies.
4. Genres and Trends
Among the most vibrant forms of Restoration literature was Restoration comedy, represented by playwrights such as William Congreve (The Way of the World) and George Etherege (The Man of Mode), who depicted the intrigues, flirtations, and hypocrisies of fashionable society. Tragedy also persisted but often followed classical rules of structure and decorum, influenced by French dramatists like Corneille and Racine. Satire became a dominant force in poetry, with John Dryden leading the way. His works, such as Absalom and Achitophel, used biblical allegory to comment on contemporary politics, while Mac Flecknoe mocked literary rivals with biting wit. The period also saw the development of literary criticism as an art in itself, with Dryden’s An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668) offering a defense of English drama against French criticism. Prose writing expanded with the growth of journalism and periodicals, preparing the way for the eighteenth-century novel. Diaries and memoirs, such as those of Samuel Pepys, provided rich, personal accounts of daily life in Restoration London, offering a valuable counterpoint to the glitter of the court.
5. Key Figures
The towering literary figure of the Restoration was John Dryden, often called the “Father of English Criticism” and the most accomplished poet and dramatist of his age. His mastery of satire, heroic drama, and literary criticism defined the period’s artistic standards. In drama, William Wycherley, George Etherege, and William Congreve set the tone for witty, urbane comedy, while Thomas Otway brought emotional depth to tragedy. In prose, Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn left behind diaries that are now treasured for their vivid depictions of Restoration society, politics, and daily life. Together, these writers reflected the Restoration’s mix of elegance, sharp intellect, and a taste for both moral reflection and worldly pleasure.
Comparative Analysis — Puritan Age vs. Restoration Age
1. Political Shift
The Puritan Age coincided with one of the most turbulent chapters in English political history. The long-standing tension between the monarchy and Parliament erupted into the English Civil War (1642–1651), a conflict that ultimately ended in the trial and execution of King Charles I in 1649. England then entered an unprecedented phase the Interregnum, when the monarchy was abolished and replaced with Oliver Cromwell’s Commonwealth and later the Protectorate. This was a government rooted in Puritan values, characterized by strict laws, centralized authority, and an emphasis on moral governance.
Political life in the Puritan Age was defined by austerity and suspicion of excess. The courtly extravagance of the earlier Stuart kings was replaced by plainness and discipline, even in public ceremony. Censorship was widespread, especially of the theatre and any literature considered morally corrupting. This political climate profoundly limited artistic expression, but it also nurtured powerful works of religious and political thought. Milton’s political prose, such as Areopagitica (1644), directly engaged with issues of liberty and governance, reflecting the intellectual climate of the era.
The Restoration in 1660 marked a dramatic reversal. With the return of Charles II, the monarchy was not only re-established but also transformed into a more politically balanced constitutional monarchy, in which Parliament retained significant influence. Politically, this was a time of compromise and cautious rebuilding, but culturally it was an age of extravagance. Charles II’s court encouraged fashion, art, and entertainment, importing influences from France where the King had lived in exile. Aristocratic power regained its social visibility, and royal patronage once again became a vital force in literature and the arts.
2. Religious Transformation
In the Puritan Age, religion was not merely a private belief, it was the central organizing principle of society. Puritanism, with its Calvinist theology, emphasized personal piety, moral discipline, and the sovereignty of God over every aspect of life. The Church was expected to set the tone for both spiritual and civic life. Literature was thus often didactic, aiming to glorify God and guide readers toward salvation. Works such as John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678, though written in the Puritan spirit) presented life as a spiritual journey, with every event seen through the lens of biblical morality.
The Puritan worldview was suspicious of worldly pleasures, and art was valued primarily for its moral usefulness. Theatres were closed in 1642 under Puritan rule, and music, dance, and festive celebrations were curtailed. Even poetry was stripped of ornate flourish in favor of clarity and truth.
The Restoration period relaxed these constraints. The Church of England was restored to its official status, and while religious tensions persisted particularly over fears of Catholic influence during the reign of James II, religion no longer dictated every aspect of cultural life. A spirit of toleration, at least in elite circles, replaced the rigid orthodoxy of the Puritan regime. The shift allowed literature to explore themes beyond the purely spiritual: love, ambition, politics, and human folly became fair game. This change did not eliminate religious writing sermons and devotional poetry continued but it opened the door for literature to serve entertainment, social critique, and personal expression as legitimate ends in themselves.
3.Literary Tone and Style
The Puritan literary style was sober, earnest, and often deeply introspective. Writers such as John Milton, Andrew Marvell, and George Herbert drew upon biblical imagery and moral allegory to engage with theological questions. The “plain style” was favored a mode of writing stripped of excessive ornamentation so that the moral or spiritual message could shine through without distraction. Even Milton’s grand epic Paradise Lost (1667), while rich in imagery and classical allusions, was primarily a theological exploration of sin, redemption, and divine justice.
The Restoration saw a shift toward elegance, wit, and urban sophistication. Writers like John Dryden mastered the heroic couplet, using polished meter and refined diction to express complex ideas with clarity and style. Satire flourished, with literary works poking fun at hypocrisy, vanity, and political corruption. The Restoration audience valued clever wordplay, sparkling dialogue, and an ability to capture the rhythms of social life. William Congreve’s comedies, for instance, blended social commentary with verbal brilliance, reflecting the manners and morals of high society.
Where Puritan literature looked upward to God and eternity. Restoration literature often looked outward to society, fashion, and human relationships. This shift in tone reflected a change in worldview: from the eternal concerns of the soul to the temporal pleasures and follies of life.
4. Genres and Popular Forms
The Puritan Age was a difficult time for dramatic literature. With theatres closed for nearly two decades, playwrights were forced to abandon the stage or turn to closet dramas meant for private reading. Poetry took the form of religious verse, meditations, and long narrative epics. Prose was dominated by sermons, theological treatises, and moral essays. John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress stands as the era’s most enduring prose work, an allegory that appealed both to the common reader and the devout intellectual.
The Restoration saw an explosion of theatrical activity. The reopening of theatres in 1660 led to the development of Restoration comedy, known for its sparkling wit, intricate plots, and often scandalous subject matter. Playwrights like Aphra Behn, the first professional woman writer in England used the stage to explore themes of gender, power, and desire. Heroic drama, with its grand themes and noble characters, also became popular, often written in rhymed couplets for heightened effect.
Beyond the theatre, Restoration prose diversified into journalism, literary criticism, and personal diaries. Samuel Pepys’s diary offers an unparalleled glimpse into daily life in the Restoration city, while Dryden’s essays laid the foundation for modern literary criticism. This variety of genres reflected a broader reading public and a more dynamic literary marketplace than had been possible under Puritan rule.
5. Cultural Values in Literature
Ultimately, the cultural values of the two periods diverged sharply. Puritan literature upheld discipline, humility, and a distrust of worldly pleasures, reflecting a worldview in which human life was a preparation for the life to come. The Restoration celebrated human ingenuity, social grace, and the pleasures of earthly existence.
Yet, despite their differences, both periods shared a belief in the power of literature to shape thought and influence conduct. The Puritans used literature for moral reformation, aiming to bring the reader closer to God’s truth. Restoration writers used it to refine manners, sharpen intellects, and expose social pretense. The one sought holiness; the other, sophistication. In the interplay between these two visions, we see not only the story of English literature in the 17th century but also the enduring tension between moral duty and artistic freedom.
Chronological Timeline & Commentary
Below is a side-by-side chronological table that maps key political, religious, and cultural events of the Puritan Age (1620–1660) and Restoration Age (1660–1700), alongside commentary on how each event shaped English literature.
| Year / Period | Historical / Political Event | Religious Context | Literary Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1620 | Pilgrim Fathers sail on the Mayflower to America | Rise of Puritan separatist ideals | Puritan migration influences transatlantic Puritan literature—sermons, diaries, moral tracts |
| 1625 | Accession of Charles I | Conflicts with Puritans begin | Literature reflects tension between royalist elegance (Cavalier poets) and Puritan austerity |
| 1642 | English Civil War begins | Parliament vs. King | Puritan Parliament orders closure of theatres; drama production halts |
| 1649 | Execution of Charles I | Rise of Puritan Commonwealth | Literature turns moralistic; epic and religious poetry (Milton) gain dominance |
| 1653–1658 | Oliver Cromwell’s Protectorate | Strict Puritan moral code enforced | Sermons, religious allegory, political pamphlets flourish; absence of stage drama |
| 1660 | Restoration of Charles II | Anglican Church restored | Theatres reopen; Restoration Comedy emerges; satire and heroic couplets gain popularity |
| 1662 | Act of Uniformity | Anglican supremacy enforced | Religious nonconformists produce dissenting literature; prose debates theology and tolerance |
| 1665–1666 | Great Plague & Great Fire of London | Religious questioning; moral reflection | Satire and journalism comment on disasters; Pepys’s diary records social reality |
| 1670s | Rise of court patronage | Toleration debates | Aphra Behn pioneers female authorship; political allegory and prose fiction expand |
| 1685 | Accession of James II | Pro-Catholic policies | Anti-Catholic satire flourishes; literature reflects fear of absolutism |
| 1688 | Glorious Revolution; William and Mary ascend | Protestant constitutional monarchy established | Literary tone shifts to political moderation; early journalism flourishes |
| 1690s | Growth of coffeehouses and periodicals | Public discourse culture grows | Birth of the essay and literary criticism; Addison and Steele’s The Tatler and The Spectator lay groundwork |
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