Major Literary Trends and Movements of the Twentieth Century

This blog is written as part of the flipped learning activity for Unit 2: Trends and Movements in the MA English syllabus. It aims to provide a concise and structured understanding of major twentieth-century literary movements and concepts, helping in academic discussion, presentation, and examination preparation.

Introduction

The twentieth century witnessed significant shifts in literary thought and artistic expression, largely shaped by rapid social change, industrialization, and the impact of the World Wars. In response to the breakdown of traditional values and forms, writers and artists began to experiment with new techniques, themes, and structures, giving rise to various literary movements such as Modernism, Postmodernism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Absurdism, and the Avant-Garde. These movements reflect changing perceptions of reality, identity, language, and meaning, and they challenge conventional modes of representation. This blog offers an overview of these major trends and movements, with the aim of developing a clear conceptual understanding of their key features, historical contexts, and literary significance.

What is Modernism ? 

Definition of Modernism

Modernism is a major literary and cultural movement that developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, particularly in the aftermath of World War I. It arose as a reaction against traditional literary forms, established moral values, and realistic modes of representation. Modernist writers believed that the rapidly changing modern world required new ways of expression, and therefore they experimented with form, language, and narrative techniques to represent modern experience more truthfully.

Historical Background

Modernism emerged during a period marked by industrialization, urbanization, scientific advancement, and war. These changes created a sense of uncertainty and disillusionment, leading writers to question religion, social order, and the idea of absolute truth. Literature became a space to explore this crisis of meaning.

Characteristics of Modernism

1. Rejection of Tradition

Modernist writers rejected classical forms, linear plots, and conventional narration. They deliberately broke away from earlier literary traditions to create innovative structures.

2. Focus on Inner Consciousness

Instead of external reality, Modernism emphasizes the inner thoughts, memories, and emotions of characters. Psychological depth becomes more important than physical action.

3. Fragmentation

Modernist texts often appear discontinuous or non-linear, reflecting the fragmented nature of modern life. This fragmentation can be seen in narrative structure, imagery, and language.

4. Sense of Alienation and Disillusionment

Themes of loneliness, loss, anxiety, and meaninglessness are common. Many Modernist works express the spiritual emptiness felt after the destruction caused by World War I.

5. Experimentation with Language and Form

Modernist writers experimented with symbolism, irony, ambiguity, and complex imagery. Meaning is often indirect and requires active interpretation by the reader.

Prominent Figures of Modernism

Some of the most important figures associated with Modernism include T. S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and Ezra Pound. Through their innovative works and techniques, these writers played a central role in shaping Modernism as a transformative literary movement.

Stream of Consciousness

Definition of Stream of Consciousness

Stream of Consciousness is a narrative technique used in modern literature to represent the continuous flow of thoughts, feelings, memories, and sensations in a character’s mind. Instead of presenting events in a logical or chronological order, this technique attempts to capture the way the human mind actually works—moving freely from one idea to another. It focuses on inner experience rather than external action and is closely associated with Modernism.

Origin and Background

The technique of stream of consciousness developed under the influence of modern psychology, particularly the ideas of Sigmund Freud and William James, who emphasized the complexity of human consciousness. Modernist writers adopted this technique to explore the inner life of characters in greater depth and realism.

Key Features of Stream of Consciousness

1. Non-linear Structure

Thoughts and memories appear in a fragmented and non-chronological manner, reflecting the natural movement of the mind.

2. Interior Monologue

The narration often takes the form of an interior monologue, where the reader has direct access to a character’s thoughts.

3. Free Association of Ideas

Ideas shift freely from present to past, from memory to sensation, without clear transitions.

4. Minimal Punctuation and Grammar

Traditional sentence structures are often ignored to convey the spontaneous flow of thoughts.

5. Psychological Depth

Greater emphasis is placed on emotions, perceptions, and mental states rather than external events.

Prominent Writers and Works

The technique is most famously used by Virginia Woolf, especially in Mrs Dalloway; James Joyce, notably in Ulysses; and William Faulkner in The Sound and the Fury. Through this technique, these writers transformed narrative style and deepened the psychological realism of modern fiction.

Expressionism

Definition of Expressionism

Expressionism is a modern literary and artistic movement that developed in the early twentieth century, mainly in Germany. It focuses on expressing inner emotions, psychological states, and subjective experiences rather than presenting an objective or realistic picture of the external world. Expressionist writers believed that reality should be shown as it is felt, not as it appears.

Historical Background

Expressionism emerged during a time of social unrest, industrialization, and the trauma of World War I. These conditions created anxiety, fear, and a sense of alienation, which are strongly reflected in Expressionist literature and drama.

Characteristics of Expressionism

1. Subjective Reality

Expressionism presents reality through the inner feelings and emotions of characters rather than through realistic description.

2. Distortion and Exaggeration

Characters, settings, and events are often distorted or exaggerated to convey psychological tension, fear, or anger.

3. Rejection of Realism

Expressionist writers deliberately rejected realism and naturalism, using symbolic and abstract techniques instead.

4. Themes of Anxiety and Alienation

Common themes include fear, isolation, spiritual crisis, and rebellion against modern society.

5. Symbolism and Abstraction

Language and imagery are highly symbolic, aiming to evoke emotional response rather than logical understanding.

Prominent Figures of Expressionism

Important figures associated with Expressionism include Georg Kaiser, Ernst Toller, and August Strindberg, whose dramatic works influenced the development of Expressionist theatre.

Absurdism

Definition of Absurdism

Absurdism is a literary and philosophical movement that presents human existence as irrational, meaningless, and illogical. It is based on the idea that people continuously search for meaning in a universe that offers none. Absurdist literature highlights the conflict between the human desire for order and the chaotic, purposeless nature of life. This movement became prominent in the mid-twentieth century, especially after the Second World War.

Philosophical Background

Absurdism is closely linked with existential philosophy, particularly the ideas of Albert Camus, who described the “absurd” as the tension between human longing for meaning and the silent universe. The devastation of war, loss of faith, and social uncertainty deeply influenced Absurdist writers.

Characteristics of Absurdism

1. Meaninglessness of Life

Absurdist works suggest that life has no clear purpose or logical explanation, and human efforts to find meaning often end in failure.

2. Illogical Plot and Structure

Plots are circular or repetitive, with little development or resolution, emphasizing stagnation and futility.

3. Breakdown of Language

Dialogue often appears nonsensical, repetitive, or fragmented, showing the inadequacy of language as a means of communication.

4. Sense of Isolation and Alienation

Characters are often lonely, disconnected, and unable to form meaningful relationships.

5. Dark Comedy

Humour is frequently used to highlight the tragic and ironic nature of human existence.

Prominent Figures of Absurdism

Major writers associated with Absurdism include Samuel Beckett, best known for Waiting for Godot; Eugène Ionesco; and Jean Genet, whose works exemplify the themes and techniques of the Absurd.

Surrealism

Definition of Surrealism

Surrealism is a literary and artistic movement that developed in the early twentieth century, aiming to explore the unconscious mind, dreams, and imagination. It rejects logical reasoning and realistic representation, seeking instead to reveal a deeper truth hidden beneath conscious thought. Surrealist writers and artists believed that reality is incomplete without the inclusion of dreams, fantasies, and irrational experiences.

Historical and Intellectual Background

Surrealism emerged after World War I and was strongly influenced by psychoanalytic theories, especially those of Sigmund Freud. Freud’s ideas about dreams, repression, and the unconscious encouraged writers to move beyond rational control and allow free expression of hidden desires and thoughts. Surrealism also developed as a reaction against social conventions and traditional artistic rules.

Characteristics of Surrealism

1. Emphasis on the Unconscious Mind

Surrealist works focus on dreams, fantasies, and subconscious thoughts rather than logical or conscious reasoning.

2. Dream-like and Illogical Imagery

Images and events often appear strange, bizarre, or unrealistic, resembling the structure of dreams.

3. Rejection of Rational Logic

Surrealism deliberately breaks logical connections, allowing irrational and unexpected associations.

4. Use of Symbolism

Symbols are used to represent hidden emotions, desires, and psychological conflicts.

5. Experimentation with Language and Form

Surrealist writers experiment with free writing, unexpected metaphors, and unconventional structures to achieve spontaneity.

Prominent Figures of Surrealism

Important figures associated with Surrealism include André Breton, who wrote the Surrealist Manifesto; Salvador Dalí, known for his dream-like paintings; and Paul Éluard, whose poetry reflects surrealist imagination and symbolism.

 Postmodernism

Definition of Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a literary and cultural movement that emerged in the mid-to-late twentieth century, mainly after the Second World War. It developed as a reaction against the seriousness, certainty, and structured worldview of Modernism. Postmodernism questions the ideas of absolute truth, fixed meaning, and grand narratives, suggesting instead that reality is multiple, unstable, and constructed through language and culture.

Historical and Intellectual Background

Postmodernism arose in a world shaped by globalization, mass media, consumer culture, and rapid technological change. Thinkers like Jean-François Lyotard argued that modern society no longer believes in universal explanations or ideologies. As a result, literature began to reflect fragmentation, skepticism, and playfulness rather than certainty.

Characteristics of Postmodernism

1. Rejection of Grand Narratives

Postmodernism challenges large, universal explanations of history, truth, and identity, emphasizing plurality and diversity instead.

2. Fragmentation

Texts often have non-linear structures, broken narratives, and multiple perspectives, with no clear beginning or end.

3. Metafiction

Postmodern works are often self-reflexive, openly acknowledging that they are works of fiction and questioning the act of storytelling itself.

4. Intertextuality and Pastiche

Postmodern writers borrow, mix, and parody earlier texts, styles, and genres, blurring the line between high and popular culture.

5. Irony and Playfulness

Serious themes are treated with humour, irony, and parody, rejecting fixed meanings and moral certainty.

Prominent Figures of Postmodernism

Important figures associated with Postmodernism include Jean-François Lyotard, Jacques Derrida, and literary writers such as Thomas Pynchon and Salman Rushdie. Their works reflect the experimental, playful, and questioning nature of Postmodern thought.

Avant-Garde Movement

Definition of the Avant-Garde Movement

The Avant-Garde Movement refers to experimental and innovative artistic and literary practices that challenge traditional forms, styles, and ideas. The term avant-garde comes from a French word meaning “advance guard,” suggesting artists and writers who move ahead of their time. In literature, the avant-garde aims to break conventions and create new ways of expression that reflect the rapidly changing modern world.

Historical Background

The Avant-Garde movement developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, especially in Europe, during a period of industrial growth, urbanization, and social upheaval. The movement was strongly influenced by political unrest and the impact of World War I, which led artists to reject existing cultural values and artistic norms.

Characteristics of the Avant-Garde Movement

1. Rejection of Tradition

Avant-garde artists reject conventional literary forms, themes, and techniques, seeking new and radical modes of expression.

2. Experimentation

Strong emphasis is placed on innovation and experimentation with language, structure, and form.

3. Shock and Provocation

Many avant-garde works aim to shock or provoke the audience in order to question accepted beliefs and values.

4. Emphasis on Freedom and Originality

Creative freedom and originality are central, with artists refusing to follow established rules.

5. Social and Political Engagement

Avant-garde works often reflect political rebellion and critique of bourgeois society.

Major Avant-Garde Movements

The Avant-Garde includes several influential movements such as Futurism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Expressionism, all of which contributed to reshaping modern art and literature.

Prominent Figures of the Avant-Garde

Important figures associated with the Avant-Garde include Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, founder of Futurism; Tristan Tzara; and André Breton, who played a key role in Surrealism.

Dada Movement

Definition of the Dada Movement

The Dada Movement, also known as Dadaism, was an avant-garde artistic and literary movement that emerged during World War I (around 1916). It arose as a strong reaction against war, nationalism, and the traditional values of art and culture. Dada rejected logic, reason, and aesthetic beauty, promoting nonsense, chaos, and absurdity as a form of protest against a world that had descended into violence and irrationality.

Historical Background

Dada originated in Zurich, Switzerland, at the Cabaret Voltaire, where artists and writers from different countries gathered to oppose war and bourgeois values. The movement later spread to cities such as Berlin, Paris, and New York. Dadaists believed that a society capable of producing war did not deserve traditional art.

Characteristics of the Dada Movement

1. Rejection of Traditional Art

Dadaists opposed conventional ideas of art, beauty, and meaning, often producing works that appeared meaningless or random.

2. Absurdity and Nonsense

Nonsense, irrationality, and playful absurdity were central to Dadaist expression.

3. Use of Chance and Randomness

Dada artists often used chance techniques, such as random word selection or collage, to create their works.

4. Collage and Readymade Art

Everyday objects were used as art forms, challenging the idea of artistic originality and skill.

5. Anti-War and Anti-Bourgeois Attitude

Dadaism strongly criticized war, nationalism, and middle-class values.

Prominent Figures of Dadaism

Key figures associated with the Dada Movement include Tristan Tzara, Hugo Ball, Marcel Duchamp, and Hans Arp. Their works challenged traditional artistic boundaries and redefined the concept of art itself.

Comedy of Menace

Definition of Comedy of Menace

Comedy of Menace is a dramatic style in which humour exists side by side with fear, threat, and anxiety. Ordinary situations and everyday conversations gradually become unsettling, creating an atmosphere of tension and danger beneath the surface. The audience may laugh, but the laughter is often uneasy, as it is mixed with a sense of impending menace.

Origin of the Term

The term “Comedy of Menace” was first used by critics to describe the plays of Harold Pinter. Pinter’s drama combines realistic dialogue with hidden violence, power struggles, and psychological threat, making the familiar world appear strange and disturbing.

Characteristics of Comedy of Menace

1. Ordinary Settings with Hidden Threat

The plays are usually set in familiar places such as rooms or houses, but these spaces gradually become claustrophobic and threatening.

2. Ambiguous Characters

Characters are often mysterious, and their intentions are unclear. This ambiguity creates fear and uncertainty.

3. Menacing Silence and Pauses

Silence, pauses, and unfinished dialogue play a crucial role, suggesting unspoken violence or dominance.

4. Power Struggle

Relationships in Comedy of Menace are marked by control, domination, and intimidation, rather than harmony.

5. Dark and Uneasy Humour

Comedy arises from awkward situations and trivial conversations, but it is always overshadowed by menace.

Major Example

A well-known example of Comedy of Menace is The Birthday Party, in which a seemingly harmless birthday celebration turns into a psychologically disturbing experience filled with threat and fear.

Significance

Comedy of Menace reflects the insecurities and anxieties of modern life, showing how violence and fear can exist beneath normal social behaviour. It also challenges the audience to question the stability of everyday reality.

Theatre of the Absurd

Definition of Theatre of the Absurd

Theatre of the Absurd is a form of modern drama that presents human life as meaningless, irrational, and purposeless. It reflects the belief that human beings live in a world where logical explanations and traditional values have collapsed. Instead of clear plots and realistic dialogue, Absurd drama uses illogical situations, repetition, silence, and absurd humour to express the futility of human existence.

Philosophical Background

The Theatre of the Absurd is closely connected with existential philosophy, particularly the ideas of Albert Camus, who described the “absurd” as the conflict between humanity’s search for meaning and an indifferent universe. The devastation and disillusionment following the Second World War played a major role in shaping this dramatic form.

Characteristics of Theatre of the Absurd

1. Illogical Plot Structure

Absurd plays often have no clear beginning, middle, or end. Events are repetitive or circular, emphasizing stagnation rather than progress.

2. Breakdown of Language

Dialogue is frequently nonsensical, repetitive, or meaningless, highlighting the failure of language as a tool of communication.

3. Sense of Isolation

Characters are portrayed as lonely and disconnected, unable to form meaningful relationships.

4. Use of Silence and Pauses

Silence, pauses, and inaction are significant dramatic techniques, suggesting emptiness and uncertainty.

5. Dark Comedy

Tragic situations are presented with humour, creating a blend of comedy and despair.

Major Playwrights of the Theatre of the Absurd

Important playwrights associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett, best known for Waiting for Godot; Eugène Ionesco; Jean Genet; and Harold Pinter, whose plays also show absurd elements.

Significance

The Theatre of the Absurd challenges traditional drama by rejecting logical structure and clear meaning. It forces the audience to confront the absurd condition of human life and to question the reliability of language, reason, and social norms.

Conclusion

The literary trends and movements discussed in this unit reflect the profound changes in human thought, society, and artistic expression during the twentieth century. Movements such as Modernism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Absurdism, Postmodernism, Dadaism, and concepts like Stream of Consciousness, Comedy of Menace, and the Theatre of the Absurd emerged as responses to war, industrialization, psychological inquiry, and the breakdown of traditional values. Together, these movements challenged conventional forms, questioned meaning and reality, and introduced innovative techniques that reshaped literature and drama. Understanding these trends is essential for appreciating modern and contemporary literary works, as they reveal how literature continually evolves to represent the complexities and uncertainties of human experience.